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Classification of Terrains (Types of Terrain)

a)Plain Terrain:-
The area of country having cross slope varying from 0% to 10% is known as plan terrain.

b)Rolling Terrain:-
The area of country having cross slope varying from 10% to 25% is known as rolling terrain.

c)Mountainous Terrain:-
The are of country having slope varying from 25% to 60% is known as mountainous terrain.

d)Steep Terrain:-
The area of country having cross slope greater than 60% is called steep terrain.

Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected period.

Traffic capacity is expressed as the maximum number of vehicle in a lane or a road that can pass a given point in unit time, usually an hour

Traffic density is the number of vehicles occupying a given length of the highway in a traffic lane. It is expressed as vehicle/mile or vehicle/kilometer.

Basic capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or a roadway during one hour, under the ideal roadway and traffic conditions that can possibly be attained.

Ruling gradient ? The ruling gradient is the steepest gradient that exists in a section. It determines the maximum load that can be hauled by a locomotive on that section. ? While deciding the ruling gradient of a section, it is not only the severity of the gradient but also its length as well as its position with respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken into consideration.

Pusher or helper gradient ? In hilly areas, the rate of rise of the terrain becomes very important when trying to reduce the length of the railway line and, therefore, sometimes gradients steeper than the ruling gradient are provided to reduce the overall cost. ? In such situations, one locomotive is not adequate to pull the entire load, and an extra locomotive is required

Momentum Gradient ? The momentum gradient is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train because of the momentum it gathers while running on the section. ? In valleys, a falling gradient is sometimes followed by a rising gradient. In such a situation, a train coming down a falling gradient acquires good speed and momentum, which gives additional kinetic energy to the train and allows it to negotiate gradients steeper than the ruling gradient. ? In sections with momentum gradients there are no obstacles provided in the form of signals, etc., which may bring the train to a critical juncture.

Slack time

It denotes the amount of time each activity can be delayed without violating the entire project duration. The slack of an activity can be calculated as the difference between its latest start and earliest start time, or alternatively, as the difference between its latest and earliest finishing time.

Line Organisation:
Line organisation is the simplest and the oldest type of organisation. It is also known as scalar organisation or military type of organisation. Under this type of organisation authority flows downwards, responsibility moves upwards in a straight line

Failure by block shear at an end connection of a plate involves :
Shear along two planes, tension along one plane

Block shear is a limit state that should be accounted for during the design of steel tension members. This failure mechanism combines a tensile failure on one plane and a shear failure on a perpendicular plane

Stiffened compression element: A structural element, subject to compressive forces, that has been reinforced or stiffened, along a line perpendicular to its weak axis of bending, in order to provide additional strength against buckling

Alignment scale is also known as line finder scale. It is used to adjust the alignment of the lines in which characters are typed.

Causes for bad alignment are:

  1. Improper use of shift Key.
  2. Bend in the type bar.
  3. Defective type guide
  4. Uneven Touch.

Variable line spacer is a control on the left-hand platen knob of a typewriter that disengages the line space lever to allow writing at positions other than those normally turned up by the ratchet.

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