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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p? junction diode that emits light when activated.

Sometimes DC current gain of a bipolar transistor is too low to directly switch the load current or voltage, so multiple switching transistors is used. The load is connected to ground and the transistor switches the power to it.

The value of reverse breakdown voltage at which zener breakdown occurs is controlled by amount of doping. If the amount of doping is high, the value of voltage at which breakdown occurs will decrease. Better doping gives a sooner breakdown voltage.

The carriers in transition region are accelerated by electric field to energies. That energies are sufficient to create electron current multiplication. A single carrier that is energized will collide with another by gaining energy. Thus an avalanche multiplication takes place.

Due to zener effect in reverse bias under high electric field strength, electron quantum tunneling occurs. It? a mechanical effect in which a tunneling current occurs through a barrier. They usually cannot move through that barrier.

When voltage is increased, the tunnelling at reverse bias increases. The voltage rises temperature. The crystal ions with greater thermal energy tend to vibrate with larger amplitudes.

Higher than the positive saturation and lower than the negative saturation level of the amplifier are the desired characteristics in order to prevent distortion.

The power gain is given by 10 log (7 X 8) db.

Clipping circuits with low peak values of the output signals are used to generate pseudo square waves if the input signal is very large as compared to the output signal.

The ability of the amplifier to prevent self oscillation is a measure of its stability.

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