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Decade counter counts 10 states from 0 to 9 i.e (From 0000 to 1001) Thus 4 Flip-Flops are required.

A current is first applied to the Optocoupler, which makes the infrared LED emit a light that’s proportional to the current. … This device basically works like a switch, connecting two isolated circuits on your PCB. When current stops flowing through the LED, the photosensitive device also stops conducting and turns off.

Photoemission or photoelectric effect: Photons cause electrons to transition from the conduction band of a material to free electrons in a vacuum or gas.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small incandescent bulbs, and in seven-segment displays. Recent developments have produced high-output white light LEDs suitable for room and outdoor area lighting. LEDs have led to new displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology.

Recent advances in LED technology have made it possible for LEDs to produce white light as well. LEDs are commonly used for indicator lights (such as power on/off lights) on electronic devices. They also have several other applications, including electronic signs, clock displays, and flashlights.

The Megger insulation tester is a small, portable instrument that gives you a direct reading of insulation resistance in ohms or megohms. For good insulation, the resistance usually reads in the megohm range.

A flip flop is an electronic circuit with two stable states that can be used to store binary data. The stored data can be changed by applying varying inputs. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.

The ideal voltage regulation is 0%. It should be as low as possible for the proper operation of the electrical devices. The voltage regulation of an ideal regulated power supply is 0 %.

The step where this etchant used in PCB making is,
Fill a plastic box with some water. Dissolve 2-3 teaspoons of ferric chloride power in the water. Dip the PCB into the etching solution (Ferric chloride solution, FeCl3) for approximately 30 mins. The FeCl3 reacts with the unmasked copper and removes the unwanted copper from the PCB.

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