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For the bridge rectifier the frequency equals twice that of the input voltage.
Here, supply frequency=50 Hz.
So, ripple output frequency=100 Hz

Additional amplification over two or three stages is necessary. To achieve this, the output of each amplifier stage is coupled in some way to the input of the next stage. The resulting system is referred to as multistage amplifier. In a multistage amplifier, the overall voltage gain is equal to product of the gains of individual stages

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting messages with a radio wave. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to that of the message signal, such as an audio signal. AM wave has two sidebands.

An AM receiver detects amplitude variations in the radio waves at a particular frequency, then amplifies changes in the signal voltage to operate a loudspeaker or earphone. IF in AM radio receivers is obtained by heterodyning.

The DIAC (diode for alternating current) is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its breakover voltage, VBO, has been reached momentarily. They are widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC when used in AC switches and as a result they are often found in light dimmers such as those used in domestic lighting. These electronic components are also widely used in starter circuits for fluorescent lamps.

The primary function of a PLC? input circuitry is to convert the signals provided by these various switches and sensors into logic signals that can be used by the CPU. The CPU evaluates the status of inputs, outputs, and other variables as it executes a stored program. The CPU then sends signals to update the status of outputs.

LDR’s are light dependent devices whose resistance is decreased when light falls on them and that is increased in the dark.
When a light dependent resistor is kept in dark, its resistance is very high.
This resistance is called as dark resistance.

Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells because its spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be controlled using a simple torch as a light source.

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical current. The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area increases. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.

In photodiode, the current called photo-current is proportional to the intensity of the light incident on the surface.
To increase the speed of the response, most photodiodes use PIN junction instead of the p-n junction.
The photodiodes operate in the reverse bias condition.

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