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The input offset voltage in op-amp force the output voltage to zero due to the mismatch between two input terminal, there will be voltage produced at the output and this voltage is called output offset voltage.

Even though the op-amps are of the same type, the output voltage in these three op-amps are not of the same amplitude and polarity, because of mass production.

The maximum input voltage has to be = ?14v, to obtain the maximum full scale input voltage of 13v.

Higher resistance values are required to measure relatively higher input voltage. For example, if the range of switch is at x10 position in the low voltage dc voltmeter then, the corresponding resistance value would be 10kO. So, it requires a 10v input to get a full scale deflection (if 1v cause full scale deflection in the ammeter with a full scale deflection of 1mA).

A combination of an ammeter and a full wave rectifier can be employed in the feedback loop to form an ac voltmeter.

In an open loop configuration, the output signal is not fed back in any form as part of the input signal and the loop that would have been formed with feedback is open.

An op-amp functions as a high gain amplifier when connected in open loop configuration. These three are the open loop configuration of an op-amp.

In wein bridge oscillator, the feedback signal in the circuit is connected to the non-inverting input of op-amp. So, feedback network does not provide any feedback and the condition of zero phase shift around the circuit is achieved by balancing the bridge.

Analog phase detector is called as half wave detector because, the phase information for only one-half of the input waveform is detected and averaged.

The problems can be eliminated by limiting the amplifier of the input signal that is converting the input to a constant amplified square wave. This can be achieved by using a balanced modulator used as full wave switching phase detector.

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