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The maximum dc output voltage occurs when the phase difference is p, because the output of the XOR gate phase detector remains high throughout.

Voltage to current converter is also called as current series negative feedback amplifier because the feedback voltage across internal resistor applied to the inverting terminal depends on the output current and is in series with the input difference voltage.

The op-amp sometimes cannot be nullified because the output is very sensitive to even slight variation in wiper position of D?rsonaval meter movement (ammeter with a full scale deflection of 1mA).

Given f=150Hz. Therefore,T=1/f =1/150 =6.67ms.
? Duty cycle, D%=(tLow/T) x 100% = (2.5ms/6.67ms)x100% = 37.5%

Symmetrical square wave can be obtained by adding a clocked JK flip-flop to the output of Astable multivibrator. The clocked flip-flop acts as a binary divider to the times output and produces 50% duty cycle without any restriction on the choice of resistors.

Monostable multivibrator can be used as a frequency divider when a continuously triggered monostable circuit is triggered using a square wave generator. Provided the timing interval is adjusted to be longer than the period of triggering square wave input signal.

For a sustained oscillation in RC phase shift oscillator the gain of the inverting op-amp should be at least 29. Therefore, gain is kept greater than 29 to ensure the variation in circuit parameter will not make |A?|<1, otherwise oscillation will die out.

Op-amp741 is generally used for low frequencies < 1 kHz.

A reduced peak-peak output voltage swing can be obtained in the square wave generator by using back to back zener diodes at the output terminal.

To prevent the mistrigger on positive pulse edges, a resister & capacitor combined of 10kO and 0.001?F at the input to form a differentiator

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