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In Gram staining, the decolorizing agent, usually ethanol is added to the solution which consists of cells.
Cells that have thick peptidoglycan layers in their cell walls are much less affected by the decolorizing agent; they generally retain the crystal violet dye and remain purple.
However, the decolorizing agent more easily washes the dye out of cells with thinner peptidoglycan layers, making them colorless.
Finally, a secondary counterstain, usually safranin, is added.
This stains the decolorized cells pink.

Second messengers are molecules that relay signals received at receptors on the cell surface
That is when there is an arrival of protein hormones, growth factors, etc.
Some of the hormones that achieve their effects through cAMP as a second messenger:
adrenaline.
glucagon.
luteinizing hormone (LH)
cGMP, calcium also acts as secondary messengers in hormone action.

Proteolytic enzymes (proteases) are enzymes that break down protein.
These enzymes are made by animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria.
Proteolytic enzymes break down proteins in the body or on the skin.
This might help with digestion or with the breakdown of proteins involved in swelling and pain.

The principal function of the loop of Henle is in the recovery of water and sodium chloride from urine.
This function allows production of urine that is far more concentrated than blood, limiting the amount of water needed as intake for survival.
loop of Henle, long U-shaped portion of the tubule that conducts urine within each nephron of the kidney of reptiles, birds, and mammals.

The urea cycle (also known as the ornithine cycle) is a cycle of biochemical reactions that produces urea from ammonia.
This cycle occurs in ureotelic organisms.
The urea cycle converts highly toxic ammonia to urea for excretion.
This cycle was the first metabolic cycle to be discovered by Hans Krebs and Kurt Henseleit, 1932

Problematic heart murmurs are most often related to defective heart valves.
A heart valve may not open completely due to smaller opening.
A heart valve may also not close completely which may lead to the leakage of blood backwards causing heart murmur.

The aorta receives blood under greater pressure from the powerful left ventricle and so needs a thicker wall.
The pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left side of the heart, from the pulmonary circulation.
The heart contraction is enough to keep the blood flowing as the distance between the lungs and back to the heart is minimal compared to the systemic circulation.
So, the pressure of the heart exerting is enough to keep the blood in one direction.
Semilunar valves are present in opening of Aorta and Pulmonary artery.
Unlike arteries, veins contain valves that ensure blood flows in only one direction.
But, Arteries don’t require valves because pressure from the heart is so strong that blood is only able to flow in one direction.
Valves also help blood travel back to the heart against the force of gravity.

During an exercise session, contracting muscles help pump blood back to the heart.
After the session, blood will tend to pool in the extremities leaving less blood in the heart.
This causes a decline in cardiac output that causes BP to drop.

The thyroid gland is the only endocrine gland, that stores its secretory product in large quantity.
Normally, it stores the hormone for about 10 days supplies in the extracellular space before discharging into the blood.
It secretes iodinated hormone i.e., thyroxine and triiodothyronine which are stored in the colloid which fills the follicle cells and released to blood when needed.

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