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Each kidney is comprised of about 12 lakh ultrafilters called nephrons. Nephrones are the basic structural and functional units of kidneys.

Liver has the ability to regenerate.
It converts ammonia to urea.

Dr. Willem Johan Kolf – Designed the first artificial kidney.
Dr. Joseph E. Murray – Conducted the first kidney transplantation surgery.
Wilson Greatbatch – Invented the artificial pacemaker.

In glucolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvic acid.
In Krebs cycle, pyruvic acid is converted to carbon dioxide and water.

Alcohol fermentation – In anaerobic conditions, organisms like yeast convert glucose to pyruvic acid and then to alcohol and carbon dioxide.

Liver converts ammonia to urea.

Ammonia is a toxic product of nitrogen metabolism which should be removed from our body.

The urea cycle or ornithine cycle converts excess ammonia into urea in the mitochondria of liver cells.

Diaphragm – The wall that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Pleura – The double layered protective membrane of the lunges.
Pericardium – The double layered sac containing the heart.

The cytoplasm of RBCs (Erythrocytes) are rich in Haemoglobin, an iron- containing biomolecule that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red colour of the cells and blood.

Jan Swammerdam was the first to obseve and describe RBCs.

RBCs or Erythrocytes lack cell nucleus and most organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space for haemoglobin.
RBCs are flexible and oval biconcave disks.
Jan Swammerdam was the first to observe and describe RBCs.
The presence of iron – containing haemoglobin in the RBCs is responsible for the red colour of the blood.

Anaemia – The condition caused by the decrease in the amount of haemoglobin / RBCs in the blood.
Scurvy – A vitamin C deficiency disease.
Beri-Beri – A vitamin B deficiency disease.
Rickets – A vitamin D deficiency disease.

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