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Its spin axis is tilted by a whopping 98 degrees, meaning it essentially spins on its side. No other planet has anywhere near such a tilt.

The galactic year, also known as a cosmic year, is the duration of time required for the Sun to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. Estimates of the length of one orbit range from 225 to 250 million terrestrial years.

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The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit That’s Kepler’s third law.

The other two are the orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at a focus, and a line between a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

The main categories of spectral type are M, K, G, F, A, B, and O. The coolest stars (red dwarfs) being M, and the hottest stars being O. Our own Sun is a G star.

A white dwarf, also called a degenerate dwarf, is a stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. A white dwarf is very dense: its mass is comparable to that of the Sun, while its volume is comparable to that of Earth.

The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 x 1027 kg.It would take 318 times Earth’s mass to equal Jupiter’s. Jupiter is 2.5 times more massive than all of the other planets in our Solar System combined.

The Baily’s beads effect, or Diamond ring effect, is a feature of total and annular solar eclipses. As the moon “grazes” by the Sun during a solar eclipse, the rugged lunar limb topography allows beads of sunlight to shine through in some places, and not in others.

Astronomers make use of all possible information coming from astronomical objects, even information we cannot see. For example, all objects in the universe emit radio waves naturally. We call these cosmic radio waves. Observations of cosmic radio waves has revealed an “invisible” universe whose existence was undreamed of a century ago. Those waves to which our eyes respond are called “light”. Our bodies sense infra-red waves as radiant heat. At long wavelengths, cosmic radio waves tend to come from violent processes in the universe such as exploding stars or galaxies.

The ionosphere is defined as the layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that is ionized by solar and cosmic radiation. It lies 75-1000 km (46-621 miles) above the Earth. (The Earth’s radius is 6370 km, so the thickness of the ionosphere is quite tiny compared with the size of Earth.)

Canopus, also designated Alpha Carinae, is the brightest star in the southern constellation of Carina, and the second-brightest star in the night-time sky, after Sirius. Canopus’s visual magnitude is -0.74, and it has an absolute magnitude of -5.71.

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